HISTORY
OF ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ancient times
Encyclopedias have existed for around two, 000 years.
Marcus Terentius Varro
Marcus Terentius Varro 116 B.C. – twenty seven BC) was associate degree ancient Roman scholar and author. he's typically referred to as {varro|Varro|Marcus Terentius Varro|scholar|scholarly person|student} Reatinus to tell apart him from his younger up to date Varro Atacinus.
His 9 Books of Disciplines became a model for later encyclopedists, particularly Pliny the Elder. the foremost noteworthy portion of the 9 Books of Disciplines is its use of the humanities as organizing principles. Varro set to specialize in distinguishing 9 of those arts: descriptive linguistics, rhetoric, logic, a-r-i-t-h-m-e-t-i-c, g-e-o-m-e-t-r-y, a-s-t-r-o-n-o-m-y, m-u-s-i-c-a-l theory, medicine, and design. victimisation Varro's list, subsequent writers outlined the seven classical "liberal arts of the medieval schools"
Pliny the Elder
The earliest comprehensive work to own survived to modern world is that the Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder, a Roman politico living within the first century AD. He compiled a piece of thirty seven chapters covering explanation, design, medicine, geography, geology, and every one aspects of the planet around him. He explicit within the preface that he had compiled twenty,000 facts from two hundred0 works by over 200 authors, and superimposed several others from his own expertise. The work was revealed around AD 77-79, though he in all probability ne'er finished proofing the work before his death within the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in AD seventy nine
My subject could be a barren one – the planet of nature, or in alternative words life; which subject in its least elevated department, and using either rustic terms or foreign, several barbarian words that really ought to be introduced with associate degree apology. Moreover, the trail isn't a crushed route of authorship, nor one during which the mind is keen to range: there's not one amongst U.S. United Nations agency has created identical venture, nor however one Greek United Nations agency has tackled single-handed all departments of the topic
Although his work has been criticized for the shortage of candor in checking the "facts", a number of his text has been confirmed by recent analysis, just like the spectacular remains of Roman gold mines in Spain, particularly at Las Médulas, that Pliny in all probability saw operating whereas a Procurator there many years before he compiled the reference work. though several of the mining strategies ar currently redundant, like hushing and fire-setting, it's Pliny United Nations agency recorded them for posterity, thereby serving to U.S. perceive their importance in a very trendy context. Pliny makes clear the actual fact within the preface to his work that he had checked his facts by reading and scrutiny the works of others, in addition as relating them by name. Several such books ar currently lost works and remembered solely by his references, very like the lost sources mentioned within the work of Vitruvius a century earlier
Middle Ages : -
The first Christian encyclopaedia were the Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum of Cassiodorus (543-560), that were divided in 2 parts: the primary one forbidden Christian Divinity; the other delineate the seven humanities.
Saint Isidore of port, one in all the best students of the first Middle Ages, is known |well known} as being the author of the primary known encyclopaedia of the center Ages, the Etymologiae or Origines (around 630), within which he compiled a large portion of the educational obtainable at his time, each ancient and fashionable. The encyclopaedia has 448 chapters in twenty volumes, and is effective thanks to the quotes and fragments of texts by different authors that may are lost had they not been collected by Saint Isidore.
The first encyclopedias in vernacular language were translations or abridgements of works in Latin. Often conjointly the works by the Flemish Jacob van Maerlant, as a whole, area unit considered Associate in Nursing encyclopaedia. These works, too, area unit supported former Latin texts.
Arabic and Persian : -
Notable works embody Abu Bakr al-Razi's encyclopaedia of science, the Mutazilite Al-Kindi's prolific output of 270 books, and Ibn Sina's medical encyclopaedia, that was a customary book for hundreds of years.
These students have influenced strategies of analysis and writing, due partly to the monotheism follow of isnad that stressed fidelity to record, checking sources, and skeptical inquiry. a purchase of data it absolutely was believed not solely enlightened the mind however conjointly LED to a bigger appreciation of God. To be outstanding throughout these times was to stay pace with the ‘march of intellect’ and therefore the machine became a necessity for the widespread dissemination of this trade goods referred to as data. As a method of cultural production, the machine was the terribly embodiment of the perfect of ‘Enlightenmen
China : -
The enormous encyclopaedic add China of the Four nice Books of Song, compiled by the eleventh century AD throughout the first dynasty (960–1279), was an enormous literary enterprise for the time. The last encyclopaedia of the four, the Prime turtle of the Record Bureau, amounted to nine.4 million Chinese characters in one,000 written volumes. there have been several nice encyclopedists throughout Chinese history, as well as the human and politician Shen Kuo (1031–1095) along with his Dream Pool Essays of 1088, the politician, inventor, and expert Wang Zhen (active 1290–1333) along with his Nong Shu of 1313, and therefore the written Tiangong Kaiwu of Song Yingxing (1587–1666), the latter of whom was termed the "Diderot of China" by British scholar Joseph Needham
The Chinese emperor Yongle of the dynasty oversaw the compilation of the Yongle encyclopaedia, one in all the most important encyclopedias in history, that was completed in 1408 and comprised over 370 million Chinese characters in eleven,000 written volumes, of that solely regarding four hundred stay nowadays. within the succeeding family line, emperor Qianlong of the Qing dynasty in person composed forty,000 poems as a part of a four.7 million page library in four divisions, as well as thousands of essays, referred to as the Siku Quanshu that is perhaps the most important assortment of books within the world. it's instructive to match his title for this information, look the waves in an exceedingly Sacred ocean to a Western-style title for all data. encyclopaedic works, each in imitation of Chinese encyclopedias and as freelance works of their own origin, are illustrious to exist in Japan since the ninth century
India
Varāhamihira's (505–587 CE) Brihat Samhita ("large compilation") is Associate in Nursing encyclopaedic work, not solely managing pseudoscience however conjointly precipitation, clouds, water-divination, intentions and characteristics of animals, perfumes, titillating recipes, pimples, temples, design and different topics.
Renaissance
These works were all hand derived and therefore seldom obtainable, on the far side moneyed patrons or monastic men of learning: they were valuable, and typically written for those extending data instead of those mistreatment it
The DE expetendis et fugiendis problem by Giorgio Valla was posthumously written in 1501 by Aldo Manuzio in city. This work followed the standard theme of humanities. However, Valla another the interpretation of Hellenic language works on arithmetic (firstly by Archimedes), fresh discovered and translated.
The English medical man and thinker, Sir Thomas Browne, specifically used the word cyclopedia for the primary time in English[citation needed] as early as 1646 within the preface to the reader to explain his Pseudodoxia Epidemica. Pseudodoxia Epidemica found itself upon the bookshelves of the many educated European readers, for throughout the late seventeenth century and early eighteenth century it absolutely was translated.
18th–19th centuries
he beginnings of the fashionable plan of the general, cosmopolitan written encyclopaedia precede the eighteenth century encyclopedists. However, Chambers' Cyclopædia, or associate Universal wordbook of Arts and Sciences (1728), and therefore the Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot and D'Alembert (1751 onwards), similarly as Encyclopædia Britannica and therefore the Conversations-Lexikon, were the primary to appreciate the shape we might acknowledge these days, with a comprehensive scope of topics, mentioned full and arranged in associate accessible, systematic methodology. Chambers, in 1728, followed the sooner lead of John Harris's Lexicon Technicum of 1704 and later editions (see additionally below); this work was by its title and content "A Universal English wordbook of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not solely the Terms of Art, however the humanities Themselves".
John Harris is commonly attributable with introducing the now-familiar alphabetic format in 1704 along with his English Lexicon Technicum: Or, A Universal English wordbook of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not solely the Terms of Art, however the humanities Themselves – to allow its full title. Organized alphabetically, its content will so contain clarification not simply of the terms utilized in the humanities and sciences, however of the humanities and sciences themselves. Sir Sir Isaac Newton contributed his solely revealed work on chemistry to the second volume of 1710. Its stress was on science—and conformably to the broad 18th-century understanding of the term 'science', its content extends on the far side what would be referred to as science or technology these days, and includes topics from the humanities and fine arts, e.g. a considerable variety from law, commerce, music, and heraldry. At about 1,200 pages, its scope is thought of as additional that of associate comprehensive wordbook than a real encyclopaedia. Harris himself thought of it a dictionary; the work is one among the primary technical dictionaries in any language
The early years of the nineteenth century saw a flowering of encyclopaedia commercial enterprise within the uk, Europe and America. In England Rees's Cyclopædia (1802–19) contains a massive quantity in info regarding the commercial and scientific revolutions of the time. A feature of those publications is that the high-quality illustrations created by engravers like Wilson Lowry of art work equipped by specialist draftsmen like John Farey, Jr. Encyclopedias were revealed in European country, as a results of the Scottish Enlightenment, for education there was of the next commonplace than within the remainder of the uk. The National Revival of Balkan state, influenced by the Enlightenment, resulted in Petar Beron's Primer with numerous directions (also called the Fish Primer) in 1824. it absolutely was alittle encyclopaedia for kids, containing fables, proverbs, ancient history, basic arithmetics, zoological science and linguistics.[12] Beron later revealed a 7-volume add natural sciences called Panepisteme in 1867.
Encyclopædia Britannica appeared in numerous editions throughout the century, and therefore the growth of widespread education and therefore the Mechanics' Institutes, spearheaded by the Society for the Diffusion of helpful information diode to the assembly of the Penny book of facts, as its title suggests issued in weekly numbers at a penny every sort of a newspaper.
International development
During the nineteenth and early twentieth century, several smaller or less developed languages saw their 1st encyclopedias, victimization French, German, and English role models. whereas encyclopedias in larger languages, having massive markets that might support an outsized editorial employees, churned out new 20-volume works during a few years and new editions with transient intervals, such publication plans typically spanned a decade or additional in smaller languages.The first massive encyclopaedia in Russian, Brockhaus and Efron comprehensive wordbook (86 volumes, 1890–1906), was an immediate cooperation with the German Brockhaus.
Without such a proper cooperation, the Swedish Conversations-lexicon (4 volumes, 1821–1826) was a translation of Brockhaus ordinal edition. the primary encyclopaedia written originally in Swedish was Svenskt konversationslexikon (4 volumes, 1845–1851) by Per Gustaf Berg. A additional bold project was Nordisk familjebok, established in 1875 and meant to comprise vi volumes. however in 1885, once it had revealed eight volumes and gotten solely halfways (A–K), the publisher turned to the govt for further funding; encyclopedias had become national monuments. it absolutely was finished in eighteen94 with 18 volumes,[13] with 2 supplement volumes (1896–1899).
The first major Danish encyclopaedia was Salmonsens Konversationsleksikon (19 volumes, 1893–1911).
In Norway, encyclopedias follow the distinctive history of the Norwegian language, the Bokmål variant having branched aloof from Danish throughout the nineteenth century. when the national independence in 1905, publisher Aschehoug (owned by William Martin Nygaard) employed bibliothec Haakon Nyhuus to edit Illustreret norsk konversationsleksikon (6 volumes, 1907–1913), in later editions called Aschehougs konversasjonsleksikon. within the Nynorsk variant of the language, Norsk Allkunnebok (10 volumes, 1948–1966) was the sole encyclopaedia till the arrival of Wikipedia.
The first major Finnish encyclopaedia was Tietosanakirja (11 volumes, 1909–1922). impressed by the minority language example of Norsk Allkunnebok, a Swedish-language encyclopaedia of Finland|Suomi|European country|European nation} was initiated in 1969 and eventually revealed as Uppslagsverket Finland (3 volumes, 1982–1985; ordinal edition in five volumes, 2003–2007). With such alittle market, the sales revenue solely lined the printing price, whereas editors were paid by endowments. In 2009 the complete contents was created on the market on-line, freed from charge.
20th century : -
Popular and reasonable encyclopedias like Harmsworth's Universal book of facts and therefore the Children's Encyclopædia appeared within the early Nineteen Twenties.
In the u. s., the Fifties and Sixties saw the introduction of many giant in style encyclopedias, typically oversubscribed on installment plans. the simplest glorious of those were World Book reference work and Funk & Wagnalls normal reference work.
The last half of the twentieth century additionally saw the publication of many encyclopedias that were notable for synthesizing necessary topics in specific fields, typically by suggests that of recent works authored by vital researchers. Such encyclopedias enclosed The reference work of Philosophy (first revealed in 1967 and currently in its second edition), and Elsevier's Handbooks In social science series. Encyclopedias of a minimum of one volume in size exist for many if not all tutorial disciplines, including, typically, such slim topics like moral philosophy and African-American history.
Articles were supplemented with video and audio files also as various high-quality pictures. when sixteen years, Microsoft interrupted the Encarta line of product in 2009.
Traditional encyclopedias ar written by variety of utilized text writers, sometimes individuals with an educational degree, and distributed as proprietary content.
Encyclopedias ar basically by-product from what has gone before, and notably within the nineteenth century, infringement was common among reference work editors. However, trendy encyclopedias aren't just larger compendia, as well as all that came before them. To form house for contemporary topics, valuable material of historic use often had to be discarded, a minimum of before the appearance of digital encyclopedias. For these reasons, recent encyclopedias ar a helpful supply of historical info, particularly for a record of changes in science and technology.[18]
As of 2007, recent encyclopedias whose copyright has terminated, like the 1911 edition of Britannica, also are the sole free content English encyclopedias discharged in print type. However, works like the nice Soviet reference work, that were created within the property right,[citation needed] exist as free content encyclopedias in different languages.
Twenty-first century : -
The English Wikipedia, that was started in 2001, became the world's largest reference work in 2004 at the three hundred,000 article stage[19] and by late 2005, Wikipedia had created over 2 million articles in additional than eighty languages with content commissioned underneath the copyleft antelope Free Documentation License. As of August 2009, Wikipedia had over three million articles in English and run out ten million combined in over 250 languages. Wikipedia presently has four,719,377 articles in English. Since 2003, different free encyclopedias just like the Chinese-language Baidu Baike and Hudong, also as West Germanic language encyclopedias like Citizendium and Knol have appeared. Knol has been interrupted.
An encyclopedia's hierarchical data structure and evolving nature is especially filmable to a digital format, and every one major written general encyclopedias had enraptured to the current methodology of delivery by the top of the twentieth century. Disk-based, usually DVD-ROM or ROM format, publications have the advantage of being cheaply created and simply transportable. in addition, they will embody media that ar not possible to store within the written format, like animations, audio and video. Hyperlinking between conceptually connected things is additionally a major profit, though even Diderot's reference work had cross-referencing.
On-line encyclopedias supply the extra advantage of being dynamic: new info is bestowed shortly, instead of expecting successive unleash of a static format, like a disk- or paper-based publication. several written encyclopedias historically revealed annual supplemental volumes ("yearbooks") to update events between editions, as a partial resolution to the matter of staying up-to-date, however this after all needed the reader to visualize each the most volumes and therefore the supplemental volumes. Some disk-based encyclopedias supply subscription-based access to on-line updates, that ar then integrated with the content already on the user's disc during a manner out of the question with a written reference work.
Information during a written reference work essentially desires some type of hierarchical data structure. historically, the tactic utilized is to gift the data ordered alphabetically by the article title. but with the appearance of dynamic electronic formats the necessity to impose a pre-determined structure is a smaller amount necessary. yet, most electronic encyclopedias still supply a variety of structure methods for the articles, like by subject, area, or alphabetically.
Digital encyclopedias additionally supply larger search talents than written versions. whereas the written versions trust indexes to help in looking for topics, laptop accessible versions permit looking through article text for keywords or phrases.
Specialized encyclopedias might supply a additional comprehensive content. as an example, Stanford reference work of Philosophy, ADAM Medical reference work (which includes over four,000 articles regarding diseases, tests, symptoms, injuries, and surgeries), the Wiki reference work of Law and therefore the reference work of Earth all offer a additional targeted list of topics.
In the Muslim Republic of Asian nation, recent works embody the book of facts of the planet of Islam ready in ten volumes by The book of facts Islamica Foundation,[20] the book of facts of latest Islam revealed as a four-volume English reference work as well as around 1200 entries. different such works are: the reference work of Muhammadan Ali, the reference work of Qur'anology, and therefore the reference work of girl Fātima, all revealed by the Muslim analysis Institute for Culture and Thought (IICT)
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